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Too much or too little potassium can harm the heart. Diet, medications, and kidney function can affect the body's potassium level. Dietary potassium helps keep blood pressure in a normal range, but most Americans don't consume enough of this mineral. However, people taking medications that raise potassium levels—which includes certain drugs to treat high blood pressure and heart failure—should avoid salt substitutes made with potassium chloride.

Recent guidelines suggest a blood pressure reading of less than 120/80 mm Hg as normal. But the ideal number for individuals depends on their individual goals and whether they also have a chronic condition, such as heart disease or kidney disease.

Up to 10% of people with high blood pressure have secondary hypertension, which is caused by another condition or disease. The most common of these involve problems with the adrenal glands (hyperaldosteronism), or the arteries supplying the kidneys (renal artery stenosis). People most likely to have secondary hypertension include those with resistant hypertension who use three or more medications to manage their blood pressure, and people who develop hypertension before age 30.

Moderate-to-vigorous exercise appears to be the best way to boost cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), which quantifies how well the heart and lungs supply oxygen to the muscles during physical activity. Higher CRF during midlife is linked to a lower risk of conditions closely tied to heart disease (including early signs of atherosclerosis, high blood pressure, and diabetes) later in life.

Recently, I had a pelvic ultrasound to evaluate uterine fibroids. During the procedure, the radiologist found a cyst in one of my kidneys. Should I be concerned about kidney cancer?

If you've had a stone, the problem is likely to recur � but it doesn't have to. Use these strategies for prevention.

The pain associated with kidney stones has been described by some as more excruciating than childbirth. Kidney stones are small, hard stones, formed when high levels of minerals in your urine start to crystallize in your kidneys, forming a pebble-like mass. The pain comes when these stones migrate from your kidneys through the ureters, which are the narrow tubes that carry urine from your kidneys into your bladder.

"Kidney stone pain is not subtle," says Dr. Gary Curhan, a professor of epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. It typically starts in the flank, at the side of the lower back. Sometimes if the stone moves, the pain migrates to the front of the body.

Kidney disease requiring dialysis or transplant is far more common among African Americans than among white Americans, but genetics and biology play only a small role in this excess risk; the difference is linked to social and economic injustice rooted in systemic racism, and all the added burdens associated with it.